Course: Eastern Religious Traditions
Lecture #9: Religion in China -- Religious & Philosophical Taoism
Philosophical Taoism
There are two main texts in this area in which the "drop out" philosophy expounded by earlier individualistic non-conformists received eloquent expression. These are the Tao-te-ching, traditionally attributed to Lao-tzu (sixth or fourth cent. B.C.) and the text of Chuang-tzu (between 399-295 B.C.).
Lao-tzu simply means old sage but was identified with an historical individual, individual, Li Erh and the legendary archivist Lao Tan.
The differences between the Confucian and Taoist viewpoints on morality, social responsibility and inner freedom are given in narratives of supposed conversations between Lao-tzu and Confucius.
Lao-tzu condemned Confucius for his attachment to the past and for excessive concern with external displaying of goodness saying:
Get rid of that arrogance of yours, all those desires, that self-sufficient air, that overweening zeal; all that is of no use to your true person.
He also pointed out that subordination to another, whether one's father or ruler, prevented a person from being his own man.
The Tac-te-ching was supposedly recorded by Lao-tzu while leaving for the state of Ch'in, while going thru a pass a guard requested that he write down his teaching. He composed a small volume of about 5250 characters now known as the Tao-te-ching.
The Tao-te-ching appears to have been composed during the Warring States period and is regarded by scholars as a compilation of materials rather than the product of a single mind. It can best be understood as a criticism of the growing currency of Confucian thinking.
The Tao-te-ching is commonly understood as a mystical text but it addressed itself to the problem of human relations and the functioning of society being directed to rulers who wished to control their people.
There are great differences between Confucian and Taoist approaches to the problem of true leadership and morality though the concerns are the same.
Where Confucianism proposes a specific system of values by which men could attain the durable society, the Tao-te-ching points to the requisite attitudes and personal traits which the individual must cultivate as the foundation of human relations.
Confucian emphasis is on doing and acting while the teaching of Lao-tzu stresses one's mode of being in the world and the perspective which one must hold when dealing with the circumstances of life. Taoists attempt to develop their inner lives.
The Confucius indicated that these qualities should be inner ones, later Confucians tended to place greater stress on the exterior acts, opening the way for formalism, hypocrisy, and rigidity, which the Taoists acutely criticized.
The central concept of Taoism is the Tao which means the way or path. For the Taoist school it refers to the process of Nature and the cosmos and to the underlying reality embracing all existence. It is the symbol of ultimate reality.
In the Tao-te-ching the Tao has become the formless, nonactive-active reality and is essentially indefinable. The opening passage makes that clear saying: "the Tao (Way) that can be told is not the eternal Tao; the name that can be named is not the eternal name.” In a later passage it says: "He who knows does not speak. He who speaks does not know." (Tao-te-ching 56)
The evolution of the world out of the Tao offers a model for the attitudes necessary in human relations and dealing with life. The concept has two aspects:
It is at once the totality of the order of Heaven and Earth and at the same time,
It is the nameless, vital potentiality which is the basis of the order of Nature.
As the ultimate ground of things, Tao can only be termed the nameless, or Nonbeing. It is beyond categorization but is the necessary source of all.
Among the world of things dualism is the fundamental mode of thinking. Thus, the term "Nonbeing" has two aspects.
First, it is the basis of Being beyond thought and, on the other hand, it is the correlate of Being in the world of experience, As Nonbeing implies Being in the world of dualistic thought, so Being has mysteriously flashed forth from the midst of Nonbeing. Te is Tao manifest as the power of Being within the myriad things. It is Te (virtue) which makes a thing to be what it is, Through Te things fulfill their natures. (read #51)
Thus, the only true existence is that which conforms to the wisdom of nature.
One must cultivate the "spirit of the valley" which include qualities such as breadth, openness, inclusiveness, humility and lowliness. As female the valley expresses qualities of passivity, receptiveness, tranquility, and productivity. A fruit tree produces fruit without straining to do so. The eroding ability of water attests to the hidden power in softness and weakness in dealing with affairs:
There is nothing softer and weaker than water and yet there is nothing better for attacking hard and strong things.
For this reason there is no substitute for it.
All the world knows that the weak overcomes the strong and the soft overcomes the hard.
But none can practice it.
The Tao-te-Ching advances the thesis of the utility of the empty. The idea behind this is that it is the empty spaces in things like a wheel, a room or a clay pot that make it usable. (Read #11)
The most famous and significant quality advanced is that of wu-wei (non-action). It is set forth as the ideal way of handling affairs and governing.
Tao invariably takes no action, and yet there is nothing left undone.
If kings and barons can keep it, all things will transform spontaneously.
If, after transformation, they should desire to be active, I would restrain them with simplicity, which has no name. Simplicity, which has no name is free of desires. Being free of desires, it is tranquil. And the world will be at peace of its own accord. (Tao-te-ching, 37, 48, 57)
The basic meaning is not to do nothing but rather is a special perspective on the nature of doing which is do nothing contrary to Nature or the Tao. It also means not acting from self-centered motives. The nonaction by which all is accomplished would imply that one is to cultivate his nature in order to act spontaneously from within without contriving or forcing himself or others externally in attaining a goal.
In terms of Confucian-Taoist contrast, the Confucianist tended to specify actions which would bring a person into harmony with reality. The Taoist emphasized that harmony with reality is the basis of action.
Thru the natural influence of character one can lead people to a desired end. The idea is to let things alone. One should understand the course of events and allow a thing to work out by themselves in the light of the true way of influencing. Read the following:
Therefore, the sage manages affairs without action and spreads doctrines without words.
All things arise, and he does not turn away from them.
He produces them but does not take possession of them.
He acts but does not rely on his own ability.
He accomplishes his task but does not claim credit for it. It is precisely because he does not claim credit that his accomplishment remains with him. (Tao-te-ching, 2)
Thus, the true leader must reject the ego which tries to dominate affairs.
Two other traits are associated with letting alone. One is the non-competitive approach to human relations, and the other is knowing when to stop. Competition is willed by man, not natural and to end it one must decide to stop it. Competition is the attempt to subjugate others to one's own ego. When one's ego is in proper perspective, there is no competition as is evident in Heaven's dealing with the world. Read the following:
The way of Heaven does not compete, and yet it skillfully achieves victory.
It does not speak, and yet it skillfully responds to things. It comes to you without your invitation.
It is not anxious about things and yet it plans well.
Heaven's net is indeed vast,
Tho its meshes are wide, it misses nothing. (Tao-te-ching, 73)
In one's dealings with others one is to be honest and good with all whether dealing with the big or small, many or few, hatred is to be repaid with virtue.
The political philosophy of the Tao-te-ching rests on the principle that the best ruler is the one whose existence is hardly noted by the people. He rules by the principles of nonaction, letting alone, and moderation. The king should understand "that gentleness is stronger than harshness."
Taoists realized that appeals to virtue were an indication that society had already failed.
Laws are also seen as signs of society's failure and an attempt to gain by compulsion what should flow naturally from the human situation. (Read from for Essential # 57 / Book p.44)
The more taboos and prohibitions there are in the world, the poorer the people will be.
The more sharp weapons the people have, the more troubled the state will be.
The more cunning and skill man posses, the more vicious things will appear.
The more laws and orders are made prominent, the more thieves and robbers there will be. (Tao-te-ching, 57)
War is also seen as a basic failure in society. Though sometimes inevitable, it brings disrespect for life. Any rejoicing in war is a sign of lack of basic humanity.
The Taoist criticism of society made it the spokesman for the oppressed. Due to this feature it fostered secret societies responsible for popular uprisings aimed at political and economic reforms.
Basically, one should be happy where one is and with what one has. Civilization extracts a price from the human spirit. With increasing organization comes the loss of spontaneity, naturalness, simplicity, and sheer delight in life itself.
Chuang-tzu (4th century BCE)
The second major figure in Taoist philosophy. His chief doctrines were based upon the sayings of Lao Tzu. Again, it may be a book by several thinkers.
Advocated a mystical approach to life in contrast to the activist views of other ancient schools such as Moists and Confucianists.
It presented a radical solution by advocating emancipation from the world instead of reforming it. According to the Chuang-tzu men created their own problems by the pursuit of virtue, fame and wisdom. From The Essential Tao[i]:
The appearance of right and wrong was the reason the Way has been missing. The reason the Way is missing is the reason emotional attachment forms. But is there actually any presence or absence?
It attempts to encourage men to transcend the world by freeing the mind from the conviction that what it perceives, thinks, and understands is what really is.
To achieve emancipation the Chuang-tzu urges the practices of "free and easy wandering,” "fasting of the mind" and "forgetting" which is a meditative technique of letting the mind wander anywhere it will making no room for personal views and in simplicity. In this way one is in the company of the Creator and great Teacher. From The Essential Tao[ii]:
Therefore the aim of sages is for diffused brilliance: they do not employ it for affirmation, but entrust it to the constant. This is called using clarity.
He points out that not all can do this. The person with evident skills and capacities is tied to the Earth because of a need to be working.
The true sage is flexible in confronting circumstance, is "able to wander in the world without taking sides, can follow along with men without losing himself."
Thru the "fasting of the mind" we transcend the intellect and enter the emptiness of the Tao. By means of true forgetting we attain union with the Tao as we "drive out perception and intellect, cast off form, do away with understanding." Thus, the spiritual ascent to enlightenment and the realization of the unity of all differences is process of progressive emptying of the self. The result is to be union with reality such that one has Peace-in-strife.
The perfect man is never a stickler in his actions.
The concept of "usefulness of the useless" corresponds to the utility of the empty in Lao-tzu. As a practical approach to life, it suggests that the truly wise person avoids grief and pain and fulfills his life by following a simple, quiet, obscure life which the world passes over as insignificant. (read Chung Tzu p. 92 – Essential Tao tree)
In meditation one realizes the contrast between the heavenly and the human. The heavenly is the natural, original, or fated endowment of any being just as horses and oxen naturally have four feet. In contrast the human refers to man's intentional imposition on, and manipulation of, Nature. Just as men cut a road thru a trackless field, they attempt to impose order on Heaven making it conform to their scheme of values,
Further, heaven stands for what is essential and inward, while the human is the external, artificial, and manipulative.
Words represent man's intellectual effort to order reality but they become a barrier to the full realization of his existence.
Differences among people are only matters of degree and standpoint, not substance of reality.
Man's life is bound and overwhelmed by fears and anxieties thus the problem is change becomes threatening because of confusion and frustration in life resulting from not perceiving man's pettiness within the cosmic order.
Solution is one must press beyond the world of contrary distinctions and arbitrary evaluations. Attaining a vision of the unity of the Tao which unifies all the dualities of existence. Thus the person not touched by good or bad or try to help life along.
Those close to the truth are those who do not reject what pertains to Heaven nor neglect what pertains to man.
It is clear that the major problem of existence is egoism and ego attachment. If one can attain detachment from the self and world, one's spirit would not be disturbed by dramatic shifts in affairs. Duality of life and death is wrongly evaluated by man. Both must be accepted. Death is merely one of the many changes the individual undergoes thru his process of living. (read Chung tzu, p.81 / p. 110 Ess Tao)
Unless the person is certain of himself within, he cannot be sure facing the world. The nurture of the inner man, which is the foundation of all life's activities, forms the central concern of the Chuang-tzun
Neo-Taoism
Developed after the Han dynasty when Confucianism was losing prestige around the fourth century CE.
A distinctive feature of these later Taoist philosophers was their attitude to Confucius, whom Taoists generally criticized and identified with sham and hypocrisy. The latter-day Taoists regarded Confucius as the greatest sage, even superior to Lao-tzu and Chuang-tzu. The reason for this was that according to Taoist principle, he who knows does not speak and he who speaks does not know. Since Confucius didn't speak and the others did it was assumed Confucius did know.
In general, Neo-Taoist philosophy focused attention on the problem of metaphysics, the relation of things to the source of their being and the relation of Being and Nonbeing.
Religious Taoism
It is religious Taoism that has functioned among the hosts of common people to fulfill their desires for satisfaction in life and a bright destiny beyond this life.
Began as an institution about 143 CE by one Chang Ling. However, the beliefs and practices go back to ancient times. Religious Taoism has been the central element as the vehicle of folk beliefs. However, it has never been supported officially by the state.
The origin may be traced to four sources which merged to form the complex of religious Taoism in the 4th century BCE before any institutional establishment. These are:
The philosophical Taoism of Lao-tzu, Chuang-tzu, and Lieh-tz
A school of hygiene.
The Five Element school of Tsou Yen, which later came to be regarded as a school of alchemy. and
Belief in the isles of the Blest where the secret of immortality could be obtained.
The unified element fusing these varied beliefs was the quest for immortality.
The first attempts for obtaining immortality were through hygienic practices such as diet, breathing, gymnastics, etc. which aimed at maintaining the 36,000 deities which were believed to dwell in each person. If these deities left, the person would die so practices were followed to maintain them. One must also practice doing good works to achieve complete fulfillment.
There was a moralistic character to religious Taoism given in the 11th century CE. It was a widely read religious book. Thru a combination of Taoist, Confucian, and Buddhist ideas it reveals how morality and religious concepts were made available to the common people and enabled the Confucian elite to maintain their control over the people thru fears of punishment inculcated by its text and drawings.
Deities
Among most important Taoist deities is the Jade Emperor who is regarded as the father of the gods in Taoist lore. His palace is in the constellation above the North Pole where all the powers of Nature which influence Earth are concentrated.
The Eight Immortals who work to bring blessings to mankind are next. Other widely revered deities are the Great God of the Five Roads of evil omen, and the positive God of the five blessings.
The god of the hearth is very important who keeps track of family doings and annually reports to the Jade Emperor.
Interaction with Buddhism imported from India in the 1st Century CE contributed beliefs in Heaven, and Hell, Karma and transmigration.
Chang Ling institutionalized Religious Taoism in 143 CE. He charged five bushels of rice to join.
He also initiated a health cult to cure diseases by charms and spells, and emphasized abstention from alcohol, giving to charity, moral deeds, filial piety, meditation, repentance, and the reading of the Tao-te-ching. The movement continued to modern times, headed by descendants of Chang.
Taoist religious organizations provided a refuge for people seeking stability thru a hierarchical system and offered the benefits of magic.
In 189 CE Chang Ling's followers led a rebellion gaining control over wide areas in Szechuan and Shensi. In 215 CE they capitulated to the central government, but in return the government recognized the Taoist religion.
In times of stress and strain, the people turned to Taoism for inspiration for their struggle. Also, the magical notions of invulnerability and promises of immortality gave encouragement in face of danger.
Many societies were started after WW I. Most are secret in character, require initiation, vows and use of symbolic communications, chanting and fasting.
They tend to be negative in outlook, utilitarian in purpose and superstitious in belief.
Though there are beliefs in heaven and hell, these are not the main concern. They are this worldly in attempting to obtain the fruits of salvation in this life. The quest for longevity was to increase life in this world.
Taoist schools and societies have generally begun as patriotic movements opposed to invaders. The Boxer Rebellion (1899-1901 CE) is an outstanding modern example.
A strong ethical emphasis accompanied the attempt to achieve the good life on earth. Movements were laymen oriented as each worked out his own salvation. Clergy performed ceremonies but did not control the people.
While Taoist religion continues to exist on Taiwan, its status on the mainland is in doubt. It faces problems in both regions from the rising influence of science and education and from its own emphasis on magical quests for self-benefit and lack of commanding leaders.