Lecture #4: Post Vedic period -- Buddha & the Pali tradition

Course: Eastern Religious Traditions

Lecture #4: Post Vedic period -- Buddha & the Pali tradition

The Sixth Century BCE

The Sixth Century B.C. was a time of religious change and questioning.
The Upanishads in general represent the Brahmanical or priestly attempt at adjusting to mounting criticism of the sacrificial system and growing rigidity of the caste system.
Numerous sects arose and fell, most led by homeless wanderers wearing the yellow robe of the ascetic.
Only two of these have had lasting importance. Siddhartha Gautama, 563-483 BCE and Mahavira, from whom the present Jain community received inspiration.

Gautama (alternate spelling “Gotama”)

Buddha simply means "enlightened one" so there can be many buddhas. however, Gotama was the first.
A. Stories of a miraculous birth in Nepal. supposedly his wife to be and others who would serve him were born at the same time.
B. Raised in luxury, 32 nurses, 3 palaces. He left his wife after the birth of his son to lead the life of a monk. Did this as result of seeing successively four unpleasant things: a) an old man wrinkled, toothless, bent over a stick, b) a diseased man with fever, c) a corpse being carried to a funeral pyre, and d) a monk serenely begging with bowl in hand.
Because he had been so protected, these caused Gautama to search for the means whereby men could maintain serenity in the face of evil, old age, sickness and death.
C. Many gods and men helped him leave his sleeping wife and child but he dismissed them at daybreak. Important as for Thervada school, enlightenment is achieved only by personal effort w/o help of men or gods.
D. Tried many methods for enlightenment including: fasting, severe asceticism, immobility.
E. He then quit the ascetic route and sat facing the west resolved to stay till enlightened. In 24 hours, he battled the tempter, Mara and his legions but came to see reality. From this comes the teaching which will follow.
F. He wrote nothing himself, so we have no really historical account of his life of teaching. Most texts date from several hundred years after his death.
The texts themselves indicate that many different school differing in practice and doctrine existed. The standard number given is 18 but we know of at least 35.

The Pali Canon

Means "tradition of the elders" and may be as close to what the buddha taught as anything we have. this is the scripture of the Theravada school of the Hinayana (little vehicle). It is found now only on Sri Lanka (what used to be Ceylon). All the other schools still extant are called Mahayana of large vehicle. These are much more liberal about how to reach Nirvana, which is for the Buddhist liberation.
This canon called the Tipitaka or "three baskets" contains the scriptures in three different collections. Fali is a language related to sanskrit. The scriptures were written 1 or 2 hundred years after Gotama's death but were not all brought together until about 25 B.C.
Four Noble Truths-Center of teaching.
1. Life if suffering (old age, death, etc.)
2. Suffering is caused by desire (grasping)
3. Suffering can be eliminated when desire is extinguished.
4. Desire can be eliminated through the eightfold noble path, consisting of:
Eightfold Noble Path
1. right understanding
2. right aspiration
3. right speech
4. right conduct
5. right vocation
6. right effort
7. right mindfulness
8. right concentration
He is a problem solver, not a philosopher. Didn't speculate on metaphysics as considered it not germane to enlightenment.
Ultimate concern was the alleviation of suffering and rebirth.
The acquisition of right views about ourselves and the world has as its purpose the elimination of suffering through the experiential realization of the truth of these views.

Three Marks of Existence

1. The first mark of existence is called anitya, or impermanence. Everything is transitory. In the Upanishads the search was for Being, the Brahman or Atman was considered the only thing that abides. The emphasis of the Tipitaka is on the phenomenal world and its constant flux.
2. The second mark of existence is called anatman which means "no soul." It is related to the doctrine of impermanence, for if impermanence is the rule, then it follows that there can be no permanent self or Atman.
The empirical self is not an abiding "I." Instead of thinking of the self as a distinct continuing entity, we are instructed that the empirical self is compounded and temporary. It is at any moment merely the conjunction of five khandhas (a.k.a. skandhas) or groups which are continually restructured and according to the law of karma. There is one physical khandha and four are of a mental nature:
Rupa - (form) is the material or physical aspect of the empirical being. Rupa is capable of refinements, and in higher beings is so subtle that it approaches the immaterial.
b. Vedana (sensations) are the result of the contact of the senses with the external world. This includes both physical and psychical sensibilities and they can classified as pleasant, unpleasant, or neutral.
c. Sanna (a.k.a. samjna) is the power which produces conceptions of physical objects within the human psyche (perception). There are six, which correspond to the six sense organs (five ordinary sense organs plus the citta, or mind, which receives impressions from the other senses).
d. Sankara (impulses), refer to all active dispositions, tendencies, impulses, volitions, strivings, emotions whether conscious or repressed.
e. Vinnana [also spelled vijnana] (consciousness / discernment) is the most important since the others depend on it. This is the psychic power of discrimination and hence is more akin to intelligence than mere consciousness.
Thus, all the facts of experience involving ourselves or objects in relation to us can be understood in terms of the khandhas.
3. The third mark is dukkha (suffering) Existence is suffering because we cling to things which are transitory and confuse the impermanent khandhas with a permanent self which is, as we have learned, nonexistent.
Those who have come to a high level of realization through meditation will sense this more clearly than others.

Doctrine of Dependent Origination (Paticcasamuppada) [a.k.a. Pratītyasamutpāda]

Basic to the doctrine of the Buddha in Theravada community. Called wheel of causation, or doctrine of causation. It is expansion of the last two noble truths--namely the cause of suffering and the method of elimination of suffering. There are 12 accepted causes.

Ignorance root of all suffering and evil. ignorance of the 4 noble truths and 3 marks of existence.
Volitional activities both moral and immoral actions. all such distinctions are part of ignorance.
Consciousness linked with another existence caused by moral or immoral activities of a being and hence leads to rebirth.
Name and form are the karma-determined results of mental and physical phenomena.
Sense fields refers to the six senses together with their objects. arise as result of existence of mind and matter.
Contact refers to sensory and mental impressions which result from contact between the senses and objects of sense.
Feeling can be classified as favorable, unfavorable, neutral.
Craving or desire arises as result of pleasant sounds, tastes, smells sights, objects of touch, or thought.
Attachment is result of grasping or craving. four types are a).sensuality, b). false views, c).wrong rites and ceremonies, and d).self-deception.
Becoming stems from attachment and causes another rebirth.
Rebirth result of process of becoming which stems from attachment.
Old age and death--result from being born, for w/o rebirth there would be no old age, sickness and death.

The Buddha indicates that the list can be reversed. This Doctrine is an attempt to show that there is no first cause, everything, including our suffering and rebirth is dependent on something else, which if eliminated, will also eliminate the problem. If ignorance were eliminated, so would all suffering and rebirth be eliminated.
The Buddha is depicted as rejecting the concept of caste, the authority of the Vedas, and the efficacy of the sacrifices. However, although the Buddha's doctrine of anatta was in tension with the popular beliefs in karma and the rebirth of the soul, they were evidently so much a part of the Indian thought patterns at that time that the Buddha maneuvered and transformed part of them rather than overtly rejecting them as a whole. His solution was to reject the notion of the transmigration of a substantial soul, but to retain the belief in karma and rebirth.

Nibbana or Nirvana (sanskrit)

Suffering that is inherent in existence is only eliminated when one achieves the state of Nibbana. means "blowing out" it means the absence of craving and involves the extinction of hatred, lust, or ignorance. In Nibbana there is no birth, old age, sickness, death, or defilement.
The Tipitaka refers to it as Highest Refuge, Safety, Unique, Absolute Purity, Supramundane, Security, Emancipation, Peace. It is a blowing out, not of existence, but of suffering and desire.
It is achievable in this life. However, it takes many lifetimes to get there, usually thousands. What happens when a person who has reached Nirvana in this life (an Arhat) dies. The Buddha wouldn't speculate. Only said that it was one of the two things that are causeless (the other being space).

Moral precepts

Sila or morality is the first step towards Nirvana. Mental attitude more important than the deed. Anger and greed are wrong because they indicate attachment.
Four (4) immeasurables called this because of universal extension.

Metta (loving kindness)- is a benevolent harmlessness which begins with ones own feelings and is radiated to others.
Karuna (compassion)-Involves pity or helpful sympathy w/o emotional factor. It does not distinguish between one's own suffering and another's.
Mudita (sympathetic joy)-counterpart of compassion, one has the capacity for joy in the success of another.
Uppekha (equanimity) is the closest to Nirvana. others have element of attachment. is a neutrality and nonattachment. the "perfect deed" is characterized by this.

Mahavira and the Jains

Jain means follower or son of the victor or conqueror. Vardhamana, (also known as Mahavira) was a contemporary of the Buddha. Many details of his life are similar to Gautama. Both were of the Kshatriya caste, the one right below the Brahmans.
He was raised in luxury, and did not enter a state of homelessness until his parents died of voluntary starvation, an accepted manner of death for those who had completed prescribed austerities. After 12 years of austerities such as the Buddha went through, Vardhamana became the Jina or conqueror.
After 30 years of teaching and organizing he was liberated by death at the age of 72. In there system, his Jiva or soul went to the top of the universe where it is no longer touched by the world.
The Jains hold the moksha is a matter of personal effort just as the Fali Canon does.
Mahavira was not considered the founder but only the reviver of an eternal religion.
He is the last in a long line of 24 Tirthankaras (ford finders). The twenty third, Parshva, lived about 250 years before Mahavira and is probably an historical person. The other 22 are not considered historical. They are regarded as gods, just as all people are potentially, and all liberated souls actually. They are worshiped in image form in temples.

Doctrinal Summary

While the Upanishads were moving towards affirmation of "Being as one", and the Buddhists of the Pali tradition were denying any reality to permanence, the Jains proposed a view that rejected both as absolute systems and affirmed them as partial truths.

Doctrine of Syadvada, or doctrine of maybe

In terms of a sevenfold formula, they supported their view that every proposition is only conditional, and no proposition can be either absolutely affirmed, or absolutely negated. each proposition is prefaced by "maybe", 'somehow" ་ or in a certain sense."

Maybe (somehow) a thing exists.
Maybe (somehow) a thing does not exist.
Maybe (somehow) a thing both exists and does not exist.
Maybe (somehow) a thing is indescribable.
Maybe (somehow) a thing exists and is indescribable.
Maybe (somehow) a thing does not exist and is indescribable.
Maybe (somehow) a thing both exists and does not exist and is indescribable.

In the first assertion we choose to make a statement of affirmation about a pot (or some other thing) according to its substance, place, time and nature. Since the pot does not exist in the form of another substance, place, time or nature, the second negating statement can also be made. Since the existence and nonexistence of the pot are intimately bound together, the third assertion becomes possible. But, if one wants to emphasize both existence and nonexistence as primary modifications and do this simultaneously, one is affirming the indescribability of the pot. But the pot is not indescribable in every way, for total inexpressibility would deny us the right to even describe it with the word "inexpressible." The last three assertions are merely the combination of indescribability (the fourth) with the first three.
The doctrine of Syadvada has been criticized because it supposedly makes it possible to offer contradictory statements about the same thing. The Jains reply that only according to this doctrine are contradictions avoided, since all statements are made only from a point of view and not absolutely. They say the charge of contradiction lies, if at all, at the door of the absolutist, who affirms or denies a statement about a thing from no point of view, as it were which Jain logic says is impossible.

Reality according to Jains

The doctrine of the Jiva => two categories: Jiva and ajiva
Jiva refers to the conscious and Ajiva to the unconscious.
Jiva is living principle, equivalent to the soul or permanent spiritual reality.
In man the Jiva is joined with ajiva or matter which obscures the infinite intelligence and power which characterizes the Jiva as such.
During Sansara (successive states of rebirth) these characteristics are obscured but not destroyed.
The Jiva acts and is acted upon. It can change its size to fit the physical object it inhabits.
Thus, the unalterable nature of the Atman which the Upanishads affirm is denied.
There are an infinite number of Jivas which are eternal (as is matter) and although in their liberated state they are identical to one another (though differing in size), they are not reduced to one as in the Upanishads.
The Goal is to subdue the material element of one's being and hence eliminate its unhappy influence so that Jiva may rise unfettered in its purity and excellence to the top of the universe.
Ajiva is distinguished from Jiva in that it lacks life consciousness. Ajiva includes space, time and matter as and well as the ability to rest and move. The Jains hold that not only animals and plants have Jivas but also the smallest particles of the elements such as earth, fire, water and wind. Matter is equally real with the spiritual order but impedes the brilliance of the latter.
Knowledge constitutes the very essence of a Jiva. It is capable of knowing anything unaided and with precision.
Only thru interference of karma that omniscience is not actually operative.
Lack of knowledge is explained by karma not as result of ignorance as in Pali Canon and Upanishads.
Karma is classified by Jains but is invariably conceived as a subtle matter which permeates the Jivas and weighs them down.
Through appropriate means, the influx of karma must be stopped and the permeating karma worked out. If this is done while still living one becomes a kevalin (omniscient one) as did Mahavira, while still alive. one is also called a Jiva mukte.
At death, the Jiva is released from the body forever and rises to the top of the universe where it remains in bliss from then on.
All Jivas are gods, though there is no supreme Creator God.

Laity and the Order

Two (2) groups: strivers (yatis) and the hearers, referring to laity) (shravakas).
For both yatis and shravakas one reaches the state of liberation by the three jewels which are right faith (in Mahavira and his teaching), right knowledge (in terms of correct doctrine), and right conduct which was similar in principle for both groups though the strivers pursued it more intensely.
Five vows made by the strivers:

Doctrine of Ahimsa or non-injury, which avoided injury to any form of life. Since Jivas are in everything they go to great length to avoid killing anything.
strain water
cover mouth when talking to avoid hurting the air.
look six feet ahead when walking to avoid stepping on anything
use soft broom to sweep anything away before sitting
no swift movements, would hesitate to scratch itch until knew if it was alive.
the hearers would not go the lengths of the strivers but were cautious.

Have avoided agriculture, fishing and butchering as professions. Thus, have tended towards commerce and banking where they are a prosperous and respected community today. Have also maintained hospitals for sick and feeble animals and birds, have placed bird feeders where they live.
Doctrine of Ahimsa is seen as applying to psychological or emotional injury by thought, word and deed as well physical.

Vow not to speak untruths, even in jest. also means not to cause others so to speak nor to consent to the lies of others.
Vow against greed and a promise to take nothing that is not given.
Vow to observe chastity. For the striver this means renouncing all sexual pleasure, but for householder it means fidelity in marriage.
Vow to renounce all attachments--most radical. extends to all sensual pleasures, such as gratifying sounds, sights textures, odors and flavors. means one would neither love nor hate an object. for the householder this meant checking greed thru placing a limit on one's wealth and giving away the excess.

Householder had a total of 12 vows. the above five plus 7 more:

to avoid temptation by unnecessary travel,
limit the number of things in daily use,
to be on guard against evils that can be avoided,
keep specific times for meditation,
impose special periods of self-denial,
spend occasional days as monks, and
give alms in support of the yatis.

Whereas Buddha took a middle way, Mahavira believed that extreme austerity was the only way to moksha. Death by starvation, after years of extreme self-imposed asceticism was considered the best way stop the influx of karma expel and what one did have so one could be released.

Sectarianism-- two important sects.

Digambaras ("clothed in space") contend that perfection could not be reached by anyone who wore clothing. Nudity was part of several sects of that period and Mahavira practiced it. It was condemned by the Buddha. They also deny that sanctity can be obtained by women and hold that perfected saints, such as the Tirthankaras, live without food.
The Shvetambaras ("white clothed") are more liberal. Hold that one can attain moksha even though clothed. they also allow women to enter the monastic order under the assumption that they have a possibility of attaining moksha.
Another sect the Sthanakavasis, are opposed to the use of images. They have no temples so worship anywhere.

Jaina Temples

Images of Tirthankaras are housed in imposing temples. Images resemble each other so much it is impossible to differentiate. the Digambara images are always nude and un-adorned. the Shvetambaara images are clothed and more elaborately decorated.
There is no priesthood so lay people (the Shravakas) sometimes even Brahmans hired by the Jains, take care of the temples.
Jains still numerous in Gujarat and there are a few in south India. They number about one and one-half million.